The moderator needs to make on-the-spot judgements; for example, on whether or not some individuals are at risk of harm from the nature of the discussion taking place, or on whether a particular topic can be closed down without thereby depriving some participants of their voice. However, as a general strategy, it may be unwise to rely so heavilyon the consent process as a means of addressing ethical challenges in focus groups. January 23, 2016. If misunderstandings do take place, the accuracy of this study would decline, as participants may start to become dishonest. For example, Iphofen (2009: p. 54) suggests that a possible social harm resulting from focus group participation might be that: the time taken to invest, say, in attending a focus group may lead to participants being unable to attend a regular social event in their community or family which is vital to their acceptance and/or status within that community. PDF Structured Methods: Interviews, Questionnaires and Observation Quantitative Research Methods (Online Lesson) Online Lessons Research Methods - Interviews The proliferation of cheap, high-quality online survey tools has revolutionized our ability to conduct surveys to obtain quick snapshots of what our members are thinking. Death Stud. : A History and Theory of Informed Consent. As a means of addressing the above issues, we outline some strategies that can be adopted in the consent process, in a preliminary briefing session, during moderation of the focus group, and in a subsequent debriefing, and suggest that these strategies can be employed synergistically so as to reinforce each other. 20(6), 693708 (2017), Halkier, B.: Focus groups as social enactments: integrating interaction and content in the analysis of focus group data. Interviews | Sociology | tutor2u If it were anticipated that some participants might become acutely distressed, this might be justified if it were believed that such feelings might be cathartic for the individuals in question and assist in the grieving process. Although, throughout time there have been noted significant improvements in education opening up, In the first round, during four months, the researchers conducted 26 face-to-face interviews. There are, however, a number of important caveats to this justification. The moderator can stay in the room for a while at the end of the focus group, or otherwise make him- or herself available, to give individual participants the opportunity to address any issues or concerns (Bloor et al. After all, an interview is two-way communication. (1956). Over the past decade, focus groups and group interviews have reemerged as a popular technique for gathering qualitative data, both among sociologists and across a wide range of academic . This paper explores some of the joys and challenges associated with research interviewing . This is extremely important in the type of research, as field research and interviews are easy outlets for participants to feel like they are being treated as animals being studied (Creswell & Clark, 2007). To ensure quality for our reviews, only customers who have purchased this resource can review it. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Focus group methodology: some ethical challenges, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-019-00914-5, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Kaiser (2009: p. 1635) notes that unlike changing a specific name, changing additional details to render data unidentifiable can alter or destroy the original meaning of the data. Moreover, if measures such as these are taken, it should not be automatically assumed that this is in accordance with participants wishes. -Interview respondents are not always forthcoming or truthful. Sage Publications, Newbury Park (1992), Morgan, D.L. Further issues arise when a focus group takes place within the context of existing social or professional relationships. However, as noted earlier, the specific issues that are discussed in a focus group, and the way in which participants interact and behave during the discussion, are to a large degree unpredictable, and participants expectations based on prior information may not be realized. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks (2016), Scheffler, S.: The Rejection of Consequentialism: A Philosophical Investigation of the Considerations Underlying Rival Moral Conceptions. In fact, it may be full of frustrations and different challenges. Adds depth and validity to research data. For any specific topic, we find most issues converge within 10 to 15 interviewsthat is, we begin to hear repeated comments and similar thinking so we are not learning much new information from each new conversation. We'll also consider the advantages and disadvantages of each different type of interview. Effective interviewers (and facilitators) are friendly and open, and they know how to probe effectively. In: Mller, A., Schaber, P. Again, the researcher needs to think carefully about the likely effects on the participants in the group. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. There have also been a number of topics that I will be able to practice in my personal life at home, as a wife and mother. The researcher can emphasize the public nature of a focus group and the need for confidentiality and anonymity, and provide guidance on subjects that might be felt unsuitable to be raised during the discussion, subject to the caveats discussed earlier. The focus group is such that issues of confidentiality and anonymity are acute, especially when the discussion concerns sensitive topics: The nature of the group setting is such that participants are obliged to express in public what they usually regard as private, and neither the reaction nor the discretion of the group can necessarily be predicted. Survey questions were sent to outside observers to ensure that the questions being posed to the participants would be meaningful and allow the researcher to collect data. Additionally, when interviewed, people describe their social world in their own terms instead of the view point of questions the researcher creates. 99113. 131139. In focus group research, however, a decision to provide a transcript to an individual participant entails also providing a written record of other participants contributions, as it is hard to extract an individual account from the text in the transcript. 1(2), 92106 (2014), Sim, J.: Conflicts in research ethics: consent and risk of harm. Hence, Walker (2018: p. 131) takes consent to be a form of communication whereby an act that would have been impermissible for some reason is no longer impermissible for that reason.. Owen (2001: p. 657) provides an example from her research on womens mental health problems: Whilst the women were permitted to discuss their painful and emotional experiences, the discussion was moved on if it was evident that the women were becoming distressed. In: Veatch, R.M. Sci. They can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured and can be conducted in groups or with individuals. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore (1982), Wellings, K., Branigan, P., Mitchell, K.: Discomfort, discord and discontinuity as data: using focus groups to research sensitive topics. Qual. -hard to analyse qualitative data. It is commonly recommended that participants within a focus group should be homogeneous (Morgan 1997; Krueger and Casey 2009), so as to minimize differences in status or power and to prevent the discussion being dominated by higher-status members of the group. In other instances, however, owing to the way in which the discussion evolves spontaneously, participants may experience distress or embarrassment that they did not predict. This paper explores, in both conceptual and practical terms, three key issues: consent; confidentiality and anonymity; and risk of harm. Interviewees may influence each other while some may dominate discussions. An important relationship between confidentiality and anonymity is that confidentiality is of greatest concern if anonymity cannot be assured. Ensuring that this expectation is fulfilled may require skilful moderation, so as to facilitate participation by all group members. : It was fun but we dont usually talk about these things: analyzing sociable interaction in focus groups. Lezaun (2007) characterizes an underlying principle of the focus group as isegorica concern to provide all participants with an equal opportunity to express (or to decline to express) their views. Fifth, the type of harm and benefit should be considered. Editors Note: This article, originally published in 2009, has been updated. Recording the interview allows the research to listen to the interview again and analyze the participant responses more methodically. However, he appears to construe anonymity solely in terms of what the researcher knows about the participants identity, whereas the more pressing issue is what others know. Interviews in Social Research: Advantages and Disadvantages The Blackwell Guide to Ethical Theory, 2nd edn, pp. 2(3), 255267 (2000), Wiles, R.: What are Qualitative Research Ethics? Focus group discussion is a flexible technique and is adaptable at any stage of the research. Find out how to make interviews effective and what pitfalls to avoid. In: deMarrais, K.B., Lapan, S. (PDF) Focus Groups It has become the subject of important methodological discussions and it is now considered a very innovative research method. In Tolichs approach to the ethics of focus groups, the principal emphasis is accordingly on the quality of the consent process and participants autonomous assumption of certain risks, rather than on measures to mitigate ethical problems as they arise: Ethical assurances, rather than safety techniques, should be at the fore. This PowerPoint though, was both difficult and interesting for the reasons of being assigned group members not of my own choosing, learning to listen to others ideas which can help me to learn something new, and using former knowledge while working together to create a clean, in depth, and well prepared presentation., The group project has enabled me to be able to interact with members of the society and other students. Improv. Perhaps a more serious problem is that anothers data could be removed by mistake. 16(1), 103121 (1994), Kitzinger, J.: Introducing focus groups. 0.0 / 5. Also, a microphone can be used to record the interview. Sage Publications, London (1999), Kleiber, P.B. Bioeth. 22(4), 517526 (2002), Sherriff, N., Gugglberger, L., Hall, C., Scholes, J.: From start of finish: practical and ethical considerations in the use of focus groups to evaluate sexual health service interventions for young people. 0.0 / 5. 311(7000), 299302 (1995), Kitzinger, J., Barbour, R.S. (eds.) 4763. 49(3), 256261 (2008), Ybarra, M.L., DuBois, L.Z., Parsons, J.T., Prescott, T.L., Mustanski, B.: Online focus groups as an HIV prevention program for gay, bisexual, and queer adolescent males. Bloor et al. On this basis, Tolich provides detailed suggestions as to the information that should be included in an informed consent form, building on earlier suggestions by Morgan (1998). A semi-structure interview has a series of identical question that is applied to all participant of a study. If appropriate, at certain junctures in the discussion the moderator can also give reminders of matters of confidentiality outlined in the consent documentation and encourage observance of agreed ground rules. Psychol. This is especially advantageous in group interviews, where interaction between respondents can spark conversations that the interviewer hadn't thought would of happened in advance, which could then be probed further with an unstructured methodology. Consent is normally regarded as revocable, such that an individual can withdraw from the study at any point after initially consenting to participate (Faden and Beauchamp 1986). Sage Publications, London (2003), Frith, H.: Focusing on sex: using focus groups in sex research. The project has built interpersonal relationship skills which enables health relationship with my colleagues and members of the public. Report this resourceto let us know if it violates our terms and conditions. Successful Focus Groups: Advancing the State of the Art, pp. The Handbook of Social Research Ethics, pp. The Limits of Consent: A Socio-ethical Approach to Human Subject Research in Medicine, pp. 55(2 suppl), 130151 (2007), Lincoln, Y.S. In a focus group session, in contrast, respondents are under pressure to perform (and possibly to conform) under the scrutiny of fellow participants. informed consent sociology. Like some people we know, the feedback we receive may be amorphous, messy, and sometimes contradictory. Int. In: Tolich, M. Interviews often yield digressions into arcane specialties, heretical opinions, conspiracy theories, and wildly inventive suggestions that each represent a unique viewpoint. Physiother. So not only does the withdrawal reduce the contribution of the person whose data they are, but it also denies other participants a full opportunity to make such a contribution. Interviews lose a group dynamic, but they also spare interviewees from spending time listening to othershelpful particularly if your members have type A personalities and tend to equate "listening" with "waiting to speak again." In: Stanley, B.H., Sieber, J.E., Melton, G.B. Pract. It is effectively an individually-administered questionnaire and could have open or closed questions or a mixture of both. 1995; Schwarz et al. In: Beauchamp, T.L., Faden, R.R., Wallace, R.J., Walters, L. 2000). : International Focus Group Research: A Handbook for the Health and Social Sciences. Second, given that other participants are likely to have consented to the focus group on the basis of having their views heard and contributing to what is gained from the subsequent analysis of the data, an attempt to respect one individuals autonomous choice has the consequence of undermining such choice by others.Footnote 3 Third, the detrimental effect on the analysis of withdrawing data in this way is liable to frustrate the moral obligation of the researcher to maximize the value of the insights gained from the study. Advantages Share many of the advantages of structured interviews. Death Stud. (eds.) The ethics of interview research have been widely discussed. : Nonconsequentialism. (eds.) Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. The focus groups in social research: advantages and disadvantages I have be asked to discuss only five topics as I reflect on this class. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-019-00914-5, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-019-00914-5. One advantage is the ability to have a controlled method of data collection. : Types of harm in social research. In groups where individuals are already known to one another, information disclosedand any subsequent failure to observe confidentiality in respect of such informationmay have a negative effect on participants future relationships (Hofmeyer and Scott 2007). 1.0 / 5 based . Med. Tools for Primary Care Research, pp. Brit. Sage Publications, Newbury Park (1985), Longhurst, R.: Semi-structured interviews and focus groups. Low in reliability - difficult to repeat exactly. However, regular use of the method can improve member and customer relations and provide a critical additional source of intelligence that we rarely obtain otherwise. He acknowledges the role of the moderator, but suggests that one should not rely unduly on the moderators skill in controlling the group, and has similar reservations regarding the use of ground rules or a debriefing session. Sch. Disadvantages of Unstructured (informal) interviews -Every interview is different, hard to compare the results of all the interviews (less valid) Advantages of Group Interviews A more effective approach, perhaps, is to enlist all four of the strategies outlined above in approximately equal measure, so that one strategy may reinforce, or compensate for, another in a synergistic manner. : Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research, 4th edn. Womens Stud. 2014). Fulfilment of each of these elements is necessary for informed consent to carry its intended moral force (Sim 2010). : Ethical practices in qualitative research. disadvantage semi-structured interview. Even conducting group interviews with two candidates at a time is going to . Qualitative Research, pp. Med. An example of a research method would be a group interview, a method that gathers qualitative data, and is favoured by left-wing sociologists due to the interpretative nature of the results. Second, at a more philosophical level, whilst consent may be a necessary condition for involving an individual in a study, it is not a sufficient conditionthe researchers moral responsibility does not end with ensuring that participants make an informed and autonomous choice as regards participation. Sage Publications, London (2018), Beauchamp, T.L. Educ. (eds.) -Interview research may lead to conclusions that cannot be applied to a larger group. In addition, other practices, such as changing the reported characteristics of participants (such as gender or occupation) are also used by some researchers to conceal identities and thereby maintain the confidentiality of the data provided by participants. (Crow and Wiles 2008, p. 2); Confidentiality means we are obliged to protect each participants identity, places and the location of the research (Ryen 2016: p. 33). Nurs. : Fifty years of empirical research on privacy. Focus groups - Representativeness/Saves time. However, the dynamic context of the focus group demands more than this. Confidentiality and anonymity are potentially problematic because of the researchers limited control over what participants may subsequently communicate outside the group. Thus, whilst harms and benefits may in principle be commensurable, they may less readily be aggregated across individuals. Don't do too many interviews. Not all of it is pleasant. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2007), Hofmeyer, A.T., Scott, C.M. Over the years of community service, job shadowing and education courses, I have learned that teaching young children is not an easy task. Low-cost and easy interpretation. Often we design surveys based on our assumptions regarding what matters, drawn from internal management perspectives, questions from the last survey, or good ideas a consultant brought in. Review ASAEs Meeting & Events Entry Policy, Our website uses cookies to deliver safer, faster, and more customized site experiences. There might nonetheless be a concern that limiting individuals ability to withdraw their data goes against the fundamental idea that consent is revocable, and thereby fails to respect their autonomy. In: Ashcroft, R.E., Dawson, A., Draper, H., McMillan, J.R. For all but the most complex projects, it is possible to begin and conclude a well-defined study of a subject of interest with the participation of a representative group of members within a 10-day timeframe. 3146. Abstract. 19(2), 157170 (1995), Corden, A., Sainsbury, R.: Exploring quality: research participants perspectives on verbatim quotations. Through group discussion, I have been able to associate with people from different ethnic groups, race and religions. In a similar way, harm may arise due to the expression of inaccurate information by a member of the group. Here are some suggestions: Conduct only telephone interviews (rather than face-to-face), prescheduling from a small random sample of the members or other targeted constituency.
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