The main units were: First Army with fifteen divisions; Second Army with 4 divisions plus an independent infantry division with three infantry regiments and an artillery brigade; Third Army with nine divisions, four independent infantry regiments and four independent cavalry regiments (tribal units); and the Fourth Army with four divisions. Mansfield, Peter. [54], The Armenian volunteers were small, mobile, and well adapted to the semi-guerrilla warfare. The fortress had never been conquered despite numerous attempts by the Persian government. As early as March 1915, when victory yet seemed a possibility, representatives of the Entente powersSergei Sasanov (18611927), Raymond Poincar (18601934), and Edward Grey (18621933)discussed the partition of the Ottoman Empire, though negotiations persisted through the conclusion of the Sykes-Picot Agreement of May 1916. Nazarbekian became the first Commander-in-chief. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. Most military equipment was manufactured in Germany or Austria, and maintained by German and Austrian engineers. [CDATA[ The destabilizing effects of frustrated Arab nationalism, European political and economic domination, and active support of Zionism must stand beside the end of Ottoman domination and the appearance of the successor states comprising the modern Middle East as the key legacies of World War I in the Middle East. They were heavily outnumbered by the Russians. Only one brigade of Russian troops under the command of the Armenian General Nazarbekoff and one battalion of Armenian volunteers remained scattered throughout Salmast and Urmia. In August 1914, of 36 infantry divisions organised, fourteen were established from scratch and were essentially new divisions. Though well aware of these dangers, the French and British were unable to maintain their traditional support of the Ottoman Empire against Russia because they needed Russian support against Germany in Europe. This group was independent from the Third Army, and Abdlkerim Paa was reporting directly to Enver Paa. At a cost of 145,000 casualties and substantial diversions from the Western Front, they had wrested Palestine, Syria, and Mesopotamia from the Ottoman Empire. The new republic brought the Ottoman Empire and Germany into conflict, with exchanges of official condemnations between them in the final months of the war. [36], Kurdish Nationalists hoped that the Allies of World War I would aid them in creating an independent Kurdish nation if they were to fight against the Ottomans, and undertook several uprisings throughout the war. Traditional Ottoman forces depended on volunteers from the Muslim population of the empire. Schellendorf also produced a better mobilisation plan for raising forces and preparing them for war. These were the Eastern Army Group and Yildirim Army Group. In addition, the Assyrians joined the Allies and saw action in Southeastern Turkey, northern Mesopotamia (Iraq), northwestern Iran and northeastern Syria following the Assyrian genocide, instigating the Assyrian war of independence. [60], First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill put forward his plans for a naval attack on the Ottoman capital, based at least in part on what turned out to be erroneous reports regarding Ottoman troop strength, as prepared by Lieutenant T. E. Lawrence. 2019Encyclopedia.com | All rights reserved. Mazza, Roberto: Occupation during and after the War (Middle East) , in: 1914-1918-online. There were five main campaigns: the Sinai and Palestine, Mesopotamian, Caucasus, Persian, and Gallipoli campaigns. [51] These volunteer units increased in size during the war, to the extent that Boghos Nubar, in a public letter to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, stated that they numbered 150,000. On 27 May, during the high point of the Russian offensive, the Ottoman parliament passed the Tehcir Law. Personnel from the Armenian volunteers including Khetcho, Dro, and Armen Garo, 1914. Following the shelling of Odessa, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 2 November 1914. Hafiz Hakki Pasha presented an alternative plan, which was more aggressive, and concentrated on Russia. "Medical Services: Casualties and Medical Statistics of the Great War." The conflict led to the Battle of Sardarapat, the Battle of Kara Killisse (1918), and the Battle of Bash Abaran. World Wrestling Federation Entertainment, Inc. https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/world-war-i-middle-east, Britain and the Middle East from 1914 to the Present, Independence and Decolonization, Middle East, The Long Decline: From the Ottoman Empire to the Mandate System. The secret manoeuvrings of British imperialism to take over control of Arabia as the Turkish empire was ousted during WW1. Kemal Atatrk, who later became the first leader of modern Turkey, distinguished himself as a lieutenant colonel at Gallipoli. After the Young Turk Revolution and the establishment of the Second Constitutional Era (Turkish: kinci Mertiyet Devri) on 3 July 1908, a major military reform started. The French Empire had parts of Africa. Despite the concessions secured by the French, they were unable to commit substantial land forces to the Middle East after the Dardanelles debacle. In 1916, French. The Ottomans accepted the Armistice of Mudros with the Allies on 30 October 1918, and signed the Treaty of Svres on 10 August 1920 and later the Treaty of Lausanne on 24 July 1923. The Middle East during World War One By Professor David R Woodward Last updated 2011-03-10 The Ottoman Empire called for a military jihad against France, Russia and Great Britain in November. London: John Murray, 2002. [43], Many Kurds also opposed the genocide and undertook personal efforts to rescue Armenian civilians.[44]. Boulder, CO: Westview, 2004. Townshend surrendered his entire force on 29 April 1916.[68]. "Top:" The size of the stars show where the active conflicts occurred in 1915 "Left Upper:" Armenians defending the walls of Van in the spring of 1915 "Left Lower:" Armenian Resistance in Urfa "Right:" A seventy-year-old Armenian priest leading Armenians to battle field. It was supposed to keep this passage open for Kazm Bey's 5th Expeditionary Force and Halil Bey's 1st Expeditionary Force, who were to move towards Tabriz from the bridgehead established at Kotur. By the spring of 1916, Hussein and the British high commissioner of Egypt, Sir Henry McMahon (18621949), reached an agreement. In November 1914, within days of the British declaration of war on the Ottoman E, Dawn The camel corps at Beersheba during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, February 1915. They came under fire from Royal Navy vessels on the river Euphrates, while British troops managed to cross the river Tigris. World War I Led to a Century of Violence in the Middle East The trenches during the Siege of Kut, December 1915. Let [] the peoples [Armenian] remaining under the Turkish yoke receive freedom. Overview In the Caucasus, Enver Paa led an ambitious but ultimately disastrous winter offensive against the Russians. He gave the leadership of this revolt to two of his sons: Faisal and Abdullah, though the planning and direction for the war was largely the work of Lawrence of Arabia. On 3 March 1918, the conflict between the Ottoman Empire and Russia ended with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, and on 4 June 1918, the Ottoman Empire signed the Treaty of Batum with Armenia. Of the advisers, T.E. Ottoman operations in the active combat theatres ceased. In Syria alone some estimates put civilian deaths from disease and privation brought on by corruption, hoarding, locust infestation, and blockade as high as half a million. By 1 October Allied troops were in Damascus and by the end of the month the Turks signed an Armistice ending the war in the Middle East. [58], On 29 October 1914, the Ottoman Empire's first armed engagement with the Allies occurred when the German battlecruiser SMSGoeben and light cruiser SMSBreslau, having been pursued into Turkish waters and transferred to the Ottoman navy, shelled the Russian Black Sea port of Odessa. [citation needed]. Captured guns made up a significant portion of overall Ottoman artillery strength by the end of the war.[95]. France received "mandates" over Syria and Lebanon. by Elie Wiesel Within the Cite this article tool, pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style. Fought betweenJuly 28, 1914and November 11, 1918, World War I was a global conflictbetween the Central Powersof Germany, Austria-Hungary, theOttoman Empire and Bulgaria; and the Allieswhich was a coalition of many nations, most prominently the Great Britain, France, Russia, JapanandItaly. ." They declared a protectorate over Egypt and deployed Indian troops to secure Basra and Kurna, which provided a buffer for the strategically vital Abadan oil refinery at the head of the Persian Gulf. The region south of Lake Van was extremely vulnerable. Encyclopedia.com. In the summer of 1914, Armenian volunteer units led by Andranik Ozanian were established under the Russian Armed forces. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2011. ): Problems of the modern Middle East in historical perspective, Ithaca 1993: Cornell University Press, pp. The British then went on the offensive, attacking east into Palestine. The Caucasus Campaign extended from the Caucasus to eastern Asia Minor, reaching as far as Trabzon, Bitlis, Mush and Van. Remembering World War I in the Middle East - Al Jazeera Top: Destruction in the city of Erzurum; Left Upper: Russian forces; Left Lower: Wounded Muslim refugees; Right Upper: Ottoman forces; Right Lower: Armenian refugees, The Gallipoli Campaign, FebruaryApril 1915. [1] "Ottoman Army Effectiveness in World War I: A Comparative Study". War came to the Middle East through Ottoman ambition as much as the imperialism of the great European powers. [citation needed], Contrary to myth, it was not T. E. Lawrence or the British Army that conceptualised a campaign of internal insurgency against the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East: it was the Arab Bureau of Britain's Foreign Office that devised the Arab Revolt. Suphi Pasha and 1,200 men were captured. Most online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers. Defenders of the Urfa Resistance, July 1915. The Armenian Legion fought in Palestine and Syria. The very high ratio of disease deaths to combat deaths is attributed to the breakdown of the Ottoman medical services, which resulted in afflictions that would normally be treated after evacuation from the theater in the British army often being fatal in the Ottoman army. Encyclopedia of Western Colonialism since 1450. . Davis, Paul K. Ends and Means: The British Mesopotamian Campaign and Commission. Lord Kitchener also appealed to Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca for assistance in the conflict; Hussein wanted political recognition in return. ." With aid and expertise from Germany, Enver and his supporters saw an opportunity to inflict a decisive defeat on Russia and recover the territory and prestige lost during the preceding half century. England and the Middle East: The Destruction of the Ottoman Empire 19141921, 2nd ed. The occupation had two stages: the de facto stage from 13 November 1918 to 20 March 1920, and the de jure stage from de facto to the days following the Treaty of Lausanne. As a long established tradition in the Ottoman military, supply, medical and veterinary services were included in these armies. The Americans started to get sucked into the complex world of Middle East politics, and with time, that interest grew and evolved: From self-determination of the Arabs to the drilling of the. On 7 November, the Ottoman Third Army commenced its Caucasus offensive with the participation of the XI Corps and all cavalry units supported by the Kurdish Tribal Regiment. Dictionary of Genocide. These were generally referred to as Armenian militia. Among Ottoman forces, volunteers were not only from Turkic groups; there were also smaller numbers of Arab and Bedouin volunteers who fought in the campaign against the British to capture the Suez Canal, and in Mesopotamia. On 2 January, Sleyman Askeri Bey assumed the Iraq Area Command. [86], Estimates for Ottoman military casualties vary widely, as the disintegration of the Ottoman bureaucracy and government meant 1,565,000 men simply became unaccounted for in the records following the end of the war. The Ottomans also threatened Britain's communications with India and the East via the Suez Canal. His offensive began in December 1916 and lasted through March 1917, during which time British forces retook Kut and occupied Baghdad. Later, it was concluded that the deployment was a mistake, as these forces would have been better placed remaining to protect Ottoman territory against the massive Erzerum Offensive that the Russian army had begun. A Russian counteroffensive in early 1915 put the Ottoman forces in Anatolia and the Caucasus on the defensive until 1917. General Edmund Allenby, the commander of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, extended the original agreement. Then, copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list. The chief of staff for the Ottoman Fourth Army was the Bavarian Colonel Kress von Kressenstein, who organised the attack and arranged supplies for the army as it crossed the desert. On 16 December, the Armistice of Erzincan (Erzincan Cease-fire Agreement) was signed which officially brought the end of hostilities between the Ottoman Empire and the Russians. Even the headquarters correspondence was produced in German. Formed in early 1871, Germany was a later comer to the competition for empire. From an economic perspective, the Ottoman, or rather German, strategic goal was to cut off Russian access to the hydrocarbon resources around the Caspian Sea.[26]. In reaction to the Assyrian Genocide and lured by British and Russian promises of an independent nation, the Assyrians led by Agha Petros of the Bit-Bazi, Malik Khoshaba of the Bit-Tiyari tribe and other tribal chiefs of Hakkari under the national leader Mar Shimun XXI Benyamin joined the Entente Powers and fought alongside the Allies against Ottoman forces, the Assyrians were known as the Assyrian volunteers or Our Smallest Ally[31][32][33], During the peace conferences in Paris in 1919, the Assyrian delegation asked for a state in Diyarbekir Vilayet and northern Mesopotamia in Iraq, others requested a British protectorate in Upper Mesopotamia, northern Mosul, and Urmia. Encyclopedia.com. Before the end of 1914, however, Ottoman forces retook the initiative on two fronts. World War I, Middle East | Encyclopedia.com With the onset of WWI, the French and the British sent armies and agents into the Middle East, to foment revolts in the Arabian Peninsula and to seize Iraq, Syria and Palestine. Hafiz Hakki Pasha ordered a total retreat at the Battle of Sarikamish. The X Corps counter-attacked the Russian forces. But although the Ottomans still ruled over what is now Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, Israel, Jordan and parts of Saudi Arabia in 1914, the empire was in decline and had been for decades. Hart, Peter. The Armenian units were credited with no small measure of the success gained by the Russian forces, as they were natives of the region, adjusted to the climatic conditions, familiar with every road and mountain path, and had real incentives to fight. WW1: Does the peace that ended the war haunt us today? World War I: The Middle East From 1916, Australian troops served with Allied forces throughout the Middle East, mainly taking part in action against the Ottoman Empire. The Middle East was largely controlled by the Ottoman Empire before World War One a dominance that had prevailed for half a millennium. The VI Corps took part in the collapse of the Romanian army in the Romanian Campaign, and were particularly valued for their ability to continue a high rate of advance in harsh winter conditions. The Battle of Megiddo (September 19-21) broke the Ottoman forces in Palestine and opened Syria to the EEF. [citation needed]. On 6 November, a British naval force bombarded the old fort at Fao. The public conclusion of the congress was "Ostensibly conducted to peacefully advance Armenian demands by legitimate means". Damascus fell on October 1 and Faisal immediately established a nominally independent Arab administration there as per his understanding of British promises. Minesweepers, manned by civilians and under constant fire from Ottoman guns, retreated leaving the minefields largely intact. In economic and human terms, the war was equally disastrous. Tauber, Eliezer. [citation needed], Not counting those later lost to the enemy, the Ottomans captured 1,314 pieces of artillery in World War I (mostly pieces in the 87mm to 122mm range). International Encyclopedia of the First World War, Civilian and Military Power (Ottoman Empire), Occupation during and after the War (Ottoman Empire), Post-war Treaties (Ottoman Empire/ Middle East), The Anglo-Russian Entente:Agreement concerning Persia, Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_Eastern_theatre_of_World_War_I&oldid=1160190500, Military campaigns and theatres of World War I involving Australia, Military campaigns and theatres of World War I involving New Zealand, Articles with German-language sources (de), Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles with unsourced statements from June 2015, Articles containing Turkish-language text, Articles with unsourced statements from June 2011, Articles containing Armenian-language text, Articles with unsourced statements from October 2014, Articles with unsourced statements from February 2011, Articles with unsourced statements from May 2015, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2009, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from November 2014, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0, ~2,275,000 civilians dead due to the genocide perpetrated by, Foundation of new states in the Middle East, Silberstein, Gerard E. "The Central Powers and the Second Turkish Alliance, 1915. More than 416,000 Australians enlisted during the First World War, with more than 330,000 serving overseas - many served in more than one theatre The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk united the Armenian and Georgian territories. Marriott summarizes the British debates on strategy for the Near East and Balkan theatre: The Russians viewed the Caucasus Front as secondary to the Eastern Front. "[63] There is no report on the exact size and nature of Mubarak's attack, though Ottoman forces did retreat from those positions weeks later. In December, at the height of the Battle of Sarikamish, General Myshlaevsky ordered the withdrawal of Russian forces from the Persian Campaign to face Enver's offensive. Let the Armenian people of Turkey who have suffered for the faith of Christ receive resurrection for a new free life .[56], The forces used in the Middle Eastern theatre were not only regular army units which engaged in conventional warfare, but also irregular forces engaging in what is known today as "asymmetrical conflict". The war was one of the great watersheds of 20th-century history. The Ottoman Empire tried to seize the Suez Canal in Egypt with the First Suez Offensive, and they supported the recently deposed Abbas II of Egypt, but were defeated by the British in both aims. [92] The 1914 census gave 20,975,345 as the population size of the Ottoman Empire. The British were unable to reconcile the Sykes-Picot Agreement with the promises to Hussein and his cohorts regarding Arab independence. Page 15. The British Navy attacked the Dardanelles on 3 November. Additionally, while by the listed numbers the Mesopotamia and Sinai-Palestine campaigns had only had 5% the battle casualties of the Western Front (136,658 v 2,690,054), they had over 70% of the disease deaths (22,693+ v 32,098). From 1916, Australian troops served with Allied forces throughout the Middle East, mainly taking part in action against the Ottoman Empire. On 6 May, the Russian second wing advanced through the Tortum Valley towards Erzurum after the weather turned milder. [58][clarification needed] and that after this meeting, the CUP was convinced of the existence of strong ArmenianRussian links, with detailed plans to detach the region from the Ottoman Empire. It brought the end of the Ottoman Empire and established successor states that are the foundation of the modern Middle East. Again a combination of British reassurances and Hussein's pragmatism succeeded in allaying the concerns of Britain's Arab allies, if only for a time. World War I shapes the Middle East The Middle East during and after WWI Google Classroom What British officer was best known for his role in helping convince the Arabs to rise up against the Ottoman Empire and fought alongside the Arabs during World War I? Enver Pasha assumed personal command of the Third Army and ordered his forces to move against the Russian troops, beginning the Battle of Sarikamish. 07779 123 243; info@cpgb-ml.org . The fleet, comprising 18 battleships and an array of cruisers and destroyers, sought to target the narrowest point of the Dardanelles where the straits are just a mile wide. It is said that the river in Charah was completely red from the dead Shikak fighters. The Fedayee turned over the city to the Russians. Enver Pasha worried about the possible fall of Baghdad, and sent the German General Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz to take command. Therefore, that information is unavailable for most Encyclopedia.com content. 6th Army field HQ during the Mesopotamian campaign, 1915. The Anglo-Arab connection survived the nearly contemporary shock of the Balfour Declaration (November 2, 1917) for similar reasons. Ammunition was low; there were only about 588 shells available per gun. Refer to each styles convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates. Bronsart von Schellendorf, a member of the German military mission to the Ottoman Empire who had been appointed Assistant Chief of the Ottoman General Staff, completed a plan on 6 September 1914 by which the Fourth Army was to attack Egypt and the Third Army would launch an offensive against the Russians in Eastern Anatolia. Foreign Minister Aristide Briand needed to provide troops for French commitment made in the Sykes-Picot Agreement, which was still secret. In the event, the Ottoman Turks made good their alliance with Germany and brought the Middle East into the war on October 29, 1914, when their fleet, led by German Admiral Wilhelm Souchon (18641946), attacked Sevastopol, a Black Sea port on the Crimean Peninsula in Ukraine. [71], Assyrians attacked the Fortress of Charah on March 16, 1918, after the murder of Mar Benyamin Shimun (killed on March 3). . The British succeeded in allaying Hussein's concerns about their commitment to French control over Syria by downplaying Sykes-Picot and reiterating their promises of independent Arab successor states to the Ottoman Empire. The British later established the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force, British Dardanelles Army, Egyptian Expeditionary Force, and in 1917 they established Dunsterforce under Lionel Dunsterville, consisting of less than 1,000 Australian, British, Canadian and New Zealand troops accompanied by armoured cars, to oppose Ottoman and German forces in the Caucasus.
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